Notes on Yeast and Dough

I make notes as I learn things, but I continue to research and experiment. I’ve gathered some useful info here to avoid having to spell things out for every recipe that might need it.

Yeast

I have mostly used the active dry variety of yeast, and any risen dough recipes in this collection assume that this is the kind of yeast being used. Active dry yeast should first be dissolved in liquid to be activated and proofed before being added to flour. This is to avoid wasting all the ingredients if the yeast has expired. Proof the yeast by adding a small bit of sugar to the water and waiting for a thin foam to develop on the surface.

Active dry yeast is sold in single-portion packets, small jars, and in bulk packaging. Packets typically measure 2¼ teaspoons, but this collection rounds yeast quantities down to 2 teaspoons. Yeast multiplies, so this small initial difference doesn’t much matter: use a whole packet if the recipe calls for 2 teaspoons.

Instant yeast and fresh/cake yeast have different characteristics, and I have little experience with them. Instant yeast has a longer shelf life and can be added to dough without proofing. Fresh yeast must remain refrigerated and has a shelf life of only a few weeks.

Speaking of rise times, yeast are living organisms, and the level of their activity is dependent on many factors: temperature, humidity, type of flour, amount of water and salt, etc. As such, any specification given for the amount of time to allow for dough to rise should be considered a rough guideline at best.

Flour and Doughs

So-called bread flour (wheat “hard flour” or “strong flour”) has a little higher protein content, which converts to more gluten, making doughs more stretchy. Stretchy doughs are more chewy when baked, which is desirable for many breads.

All-purpose wheat flours have a little less protein content, so doughs may not be quite as stretchy. They may also require a little less liquid for the same dough texture. Still, you can achieve good bread results with all-purpose flour if you don’t have bread flour available.

On the other hand, bakers prefer even lower-protein flours (e.g., White Lily brand or “winter wheat”) for doughs and batters used in biscuits, cakes, and pastries. In these baked goods, stretchiness translates to toughness, which is less desirable. We also want to minimize “working” the dough to avoid strengthening the gluten network.

Hydration and Measurement

Lower hydration doughs (relatively low water-to-flour ratio) will have a denser crumb (smaller holes), and they’ll hold their shape more easily when forming and baking. They tend to be less sticky and easier to knead by hand. The crust will be firm and dense. It can be softened by brushing on melted butter, oil, or milk before baking.

Doughs with higher hydration tend to have a more open crumb (i.e., bigger holes). The doughs will be stickier and more difficult to knead when starting out. The doughs will be looser, and they may need forms to help them keep their shape when rising and/or baking. (Many “no-knead” recipes are high-hydration doughs: it’s thought the greater water content gives the gluten extra maneuverability to fall into networks on its own.) The bread crust will tend toward being more crackly. This can be enhanced by introducing steam to the oven while baking.

These are general characteristics, but many factors contribute to the final bread texture, chew, crumb, and crust.

Because flour is a little compressible, it is most accurately measured by weight where achieving the right hydration ratio is important. If just a volume measurement is given, flour should be sprinkled into a measuring cup (rather than scooped with the cup itself) and leveled with a knife. The King Arthur company says the mass of a cup of flour should be about 120 g, but in practice, that’s difficult to replicate.

Kneading

Kneading dough is one method to develop the gluten to make dough stretchy to better trap the gas the yeast emits, and to allow dough to hold its shape. The process of pulling and stretching dough arranges gluten fibers into a network rather than random tangles.

I do almost all kneading using a stand mixer with a dough-hook attachment. However, such a mixer is not a requirement: it is a labor-saving alternative to kneading by hand. Many people prefer hand-kneading their dough, and there is something satisfying and a little magical about feeling the dough transform under your palms. Almost any kneading in recipes using the stand mixer can be done by hand. (Probably not the cinnamon brioche: I can’t imagine doing that one without mechanical assistance!) You can find plenty of YouTube videos on hand-kneading if you want tips, tricks, and visuals.

Use the “window pane” test to see if dough is done kneading: take a golfball-sized blob of dough and try to stretch it. If the dough tears before it gets thin enough to allow some light to pass through, you should knead some more. But if you can stretch it thin without tearing, it should be ready for the next step.

Proofing

Yeast bread needs time to rise, called fermentation or proofing. Most bread recipes call for two rise times. The first rise is sometimes called bulk fermentation, when the whole mass of the dough is allowed to inflate. The second rise happens after portioning (if required) and shaping. A few recipes might even call for a third rise, and some need only one (pizza dough, focaccia).

The yeast activity of the first rise conditions and strengthens the dough, providing more structure to better hold shape. High-hydration doughs will often get a stretch-and-fold during this proofing to assist the strengthening. Some doughs do overnight bulk fermentation in the refrigerator. Even though the fermentation process slows down, the extra time can deliver more complex flavor.

Typically, the end of the first rise is reached when the volume of the dough has doubled. This isn’t always easy to determine if dough is rising in a bowl. An alternative test is to poke a clean, floured finger into the dough up to the first knuckle. If the indentation springs back immediately, the dough can probably rise some more. If the hole remains after half a minute, it’s ready for the next step. But it’s also possible to over-proof at this stage. If the dough deflates, it has probably gone too long, and the second rise may not be as vigorous.

Most doughs will be kneaded for a few minutes after the first rise, which redistributes yeast and starches. The second rise will produce smaller, more evenly-distributed bubbles, producing a tighter crumb in lower-hydration doughs, suitable for sandwich-type breads.

While there’s some leaway in the first proof, the final rise is more critical, where the risks of under- or over-proofing have visible consequences in the bake. If under-proofed before baking, bread may rise unevenly in the oven or tear. The crumb will probably be uneven, with denser areas and occasional big bubbles. Over-proofed dough will not rise as much in the oven, maybe flatten or deflate. To test for proper proofing, press into the dough. If it resists the indentation, it can probably rise longer. If it slowly springs back, that probably indicates that it’s ready to bake. If the dough holds the indentation, then it’s likely over-proofed.

Baking

A properly-baked loaf will have a deep brown color, but how does one know that the inside is baked? If you have a quick-read thermometer, the probe inserted into the center of the loaf should read about 200° F (about 95° C). This will be true for almost all yeast breads.